We invite those who want to be reviewers in our journal, Journey (Journal of English Language and Pedagogy). Journey is a journal developed by English Department of IKIP Budi Utomo Malang Indonesia focusing on receiving the creative and intellectual products of lecturers, researchers, and practitioners on the field of English Language Teaching, Linguistics, and Literature. It is expected that this journal will be able to facilitate everyone concerning on publishing their research on the development of Those fields. This journal is published every February and September. You can join with us by registering in the following link: Journey JournalCall for Reviewers
We invite those who want to be reviewers in our journal, Journey (Journal of English Language and Pedagogy). Journey is a journal developed by English Department of IKIP Budi Utomo Malang Indonesia focusing on receiving the creative and intellectual products of lecturers, researchers, and practitioners on the field of English Language Teaching, Linguistics, and Literature. It is expected that this journal will be able to facilitate everyone concerning on publishing their research on the development of Those fields. This journal is published every February and September. You can join with us by registering in the following link: Journey JournalPhonological Processes
Phonological processes simply defines as The "defectiveness" of language sounds patterns due to the influence of some factors. Although the phonological systems of different languages are governed by different rules, the variation which occurs does, for the most part, fall within certain parameters. Similar phonological processes turn up, in language after language.a. Assimilation
This term refers to the process of sound change where one sound is influenced or modified by other sounds. Based on its direction, it is classified into regressive and progressive. The first happens when the following sound in a word influences the preceding sound, while the second, when the preceding sound influences the following sound since the preceding sound is too dominant. (see the examples).
There are some assimilation processes occur caused by different influence, those are:
- Labialisation
This assimilation process happens when sound is pronounced with some degree of secondary lip rounding. Take a close attention to this group of words:
Pool
Two
Shoe
Luke
Those words are said with some degree of secondary lip rounding. Anticipating the next segment, which is a rounded vowel, the speaker starts rounding the lips before the articulation of the consonant is completed, this process is called labialisation. It can be indicated in a phonetic transcription by using the raised w after a consonant [Cw].
- Palatalization
If labialisation refers to assimilation process dealing with the position of lips, palatalization deals with tongue position. It occurs when velar consonants or alveolar consonants are made partly in the palatal region due to some slight anticipatory fronting of the part of the tongue that makes contact with the roof of the mouth. Consider these phrases below:
It refers to the process of voiceless consonant changing into voiced consonant, many cases occur in suffixes. Given the fact that speech is a continuum, the process of putting the vocal cords close together to produce voicing or keeping them wide apart to produce voicelessness is not always perfectly synchronized with other articulatory gestures. This may mean voicing spilling over into an adjacent segment. This frequently happens where a voiceless consonant occurs between two (voiced) vowels (Katamba, 1996: 88-89).
Note:
(i) [-z] occurring with the words in column A
(ii) [-s] occurring with the words in column B
(iii) [-iz] occurring with the words in column C
- Nasalization
It is a process whereby an oral segment acquires nasality from a neighboring segment.
This term refers to phonological processes which ensure that differences between sounds are enhanced so that sounds become more auditorily distinct make speech perception easier.
al, the base form of one of adjective marker suffix has two variations in manifestation (allomorph) al and ar. al usually occurs when its root contains r consonant in it, for instance: electric => electrical, region=> regional. on the other hand, ar usually occurs when its root contains l consonant in it, just like: single => singular, circle => circular.
Besides, dissimilation process also occurs in these below words:
government => govement
Particular => paticular
Surprise => Supprise
etc.
d. Lenition
e. Syncope
f. Appocope
Kinds of Code Switching
There are kinds of code switching as suggested by some sociolinguists:
Blom and Gumperz (1972):
Situational Code Switching
- It occurs when the language change according to the situational in which the conversations find themselves; It can be found in the use of speech level in languages which have speeches levels. Each of the levels has its social function and is used in certain interlocutors. For instance, a young speaker will use the upper (very formal) level of the language to and older listener in kind of situation; and he will use the lower (intimate) level to communicate of the person with same age.
- It has an affective dimension to it: the choice of code carries symbolic meaning, that is, the language fits the message. This is illustrated in a quote attributed to Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, which indicates attitudes about certain languages being holy, the language of love or male solidarity, or crude or bestial: ‘I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my horse.’
Hoffman (1991):
Tag switching (Emblematic)
- With tag switching, it is the insertion of a tag phrase from one language into an utterance from another language which constitutes a switch, and given the tags are monolingual utterance without syntactic rules, for example: An adult Spanish-American English speaker: “„. . . Oh! Ay! It was embarrassing! It was very nice, though, but I was embarrassed"
Inter-sentential switching (between sentences)
- It occurs outside the sentence or the clause level, and often takes place according to turns taken by speakers in a conversation, example an adult Spanish-English bilingual says: “Tenia zapatos blancos, un poco, they were off-white, you know”
Intra-sentential switching
- It concerns language alternation that occurs within a sentence or a clause boundary. Sometimes it includes mixing within word boundaries. The switch that occurs within a sentence. It is often occurred when someone uses one language and suddenly switches into another language in a sentence, for example: a French-English bilingual says: “Va chercer Marc (go and fetch March) and bribe him avec un chocolat chaud (with a hot chocolate) with cream on top”
Negative Politeness Strategies (Brown and Levinson)
This strategy assumes that there might be some social distance or awkwardness between speaker and hearer and it is likely to be used whenever a speaker wants to put a social brake on his interaction (Brown and Levinson, 1987: 129).
Moreover, they (p. 129) introduce some strategies that included in negative politeness, they are:
1. Be direct
In the formal situation, sometimes the directness is needed to minimize the imposition by saying the point and avoiding the further imposition of prolixity and ambiguity as mentioned by Lakoff (in Goody, 1996). Fortunately, this strategy is rarely used in negative politeness because it is more relevant to be used in bald on-record strategy. For example, “Help me to pick up these boxes!”
In this strategy, S chooses to come rapidly to the point directly when she or he wants something. She does not care about maintaining face of the H but still respects and assure not to disturb the freedom of action of H.
2. Don’t assume about H’s wants
This type tries to avoid assuming that anything in FTA is desired or believed by H. it is stressed by hedging such assumptions in the form of word and phrase that modify the degree of predicate membership. For example, “A swing is sort of a toy’, or “You are quite right”.
3. Don’t coerce H
a. By avoiding coercing H’s response means that S gives H the option not to do a certain act.
b. By avoiding coercion of H means that S minimizes the threat by clarifying S view of the P, D and R values.
c. Communicate S want not to impinge on H Indicate that S is aware and he takes account in his decision to communicate the FTA is one of the ways to satisfy H’s negative face.
4. Redress others’ wants of H
This is the higher strategy of negative politeness that consists of offering partial compensation for the face threat in FTA. It shows that negative politeness attends to other wants can be derived (H’s desire for territorial integrity and self determination).
Concept of Face and FTA (Face Threatening Acts)
Based on Brown and Levinson (1987: 61) “Face is derived from the notion of Goffman and English people which is related to the idea of being embarrassed or humiliated, or ‘loosing Face’.” Since Face is something that is emotionally invested, can be lost, maintained, or enhanced, a person has to pay attention to his interlocutor’s Face. In other words, the speaker and the hearer must cooperate in maintaining each other’s Face in interaction. The action of maintaining each other’s Face called ‘Face work’.
Moreover, Goffman in Renkema (1993: 13) introduces the concept of face as an image which is projected by a person in his social contacts with others. Face has the meaning as in the saying to loose fact. Based on the opinion of Goffman, every participant in the social process has the need to be appreciated by others and the need to be free and not to be disturbed. He calls the need to be appreciated as a ‘positive face’ and the need to be free or not to be disturbed is called as ‘negative face’.
While negative face is defined as the desire of every member that he has Freedom of Action as well as freedom of imposition (the desire to not to be disturbed). For example is a father who is in the middle of giving advice to his children expects that his children do not tend to interrupt his speech (freedom of imposition).
Face Threatening Acts (FTA)
Politeness strategies are developed for the main purpose of dealing with the FTA’s. We understand the notion of ‘face’ previously from the dramaturgical theories of Erving Goffman that individuals as social actors perform (present a public self) on the stage of everyday life. The acts that threaten either the negative or positive face of the hearer are called ‘Face Threatening Acts’ (FTA) (Brown and Levinson, 1987: 65). There are acts that threaten the H’s Negative Face such as order, request, suggestion, advice, reminding, threat, warning, offer, promise, compliment and expression of negative emotion. Here, the speaker does not intend to avoid impeding H’s Freedom of Action. For example, when you ask someone to lend you some money, you are considered threaten that person’s Negative Face. It happens since you have violated his want to be free from being imposed.
In contrast, there are acts that threaten the H’s Positive Face such as expression of dissatisfaction, criticisms, complaints, accusation, and insult, disagreement, out of control emotion, irreverence, and bringing bad news about H or boasting about S, raising divisive topics, and blatant non-cooperation in an activity. All these acts indicate that the speaker does not care about the addressee’s feeling or wants. For example, disagreeing with someone’s opinion also causes a threat to his Positive Face, as it means that you indicate that he is wrong about something.
LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND SHIFT OF FLORES PEOPLES AS A MINORITY ETHNIC IN MALANG
The paper focuses on the processes of language maintenance and shift
among the Flores community, which become minority, in Malang. Malang as the
city of education has become a city of multi-culture and thus multi-language.
This situation affects greatly not only in the way of world seeing but also the
use of language of the peoples living there. The multilingual interactions with
non-Flores peoples in many social cultural occasions and situations trigger shift in the language choice and even change. However, in fact, still, they
tend to hold tightly their sense of regional primordialism as their identity.
Therefore, this paper is aimed at finding out the patterns of language shift
and maintenance of Flores peoples as a minority ethnic in Malang and what
social cultural factors affect them. Descriptive qualitative design is used in
this research with utterances of members of Flores community in Malang as its data
source. The data collection is done by using several techniques: observation,
recording, field note, and interview. The data obtained is analyzed based on
Miles and Huberman analysis model. The result shows that there are three
patterns of language shift occurred: (1) from their interaction with other East
Nusa Tenggara (NTT) languages like Weejewa and Kambera, resulted the shift of
accent; (2) with Bahasa Indonesia resulted the convergences of code choice:
code switching and code mixing and diglossia; and (3) with Javanese resulted
the shift in terms of politeness strategies used. Furthermore, the social
cultural factors influencing them are: situations and conditions, ethnical
background, educational degree, kinship system, and topics of discussion.
Key words: Flores ethnic, language shift, language maintenance
Transformation Rules
Akmajian and Henry (1975: 236-237) state that “Transformation means preserving of two surface structures derive from exactly the same underlying structure and if their derivations differ only in that an optional transformation has applied in one but not the other, than they must have the same meaning”.
Elgin (1973:294), in her study believes that linguist is constructing grammar to identify the meaning of surface structure from the deep structure. Every human being who is native speaker of a language is walking around with just such a grammar in his head. There are no linguists have yet succeeded in achieving the same perfection and completeness but that is the goal toward their work. (Elgin, 1973: 54) states that “When a deep structure undergoes a rule (or rules) and the end result is a sequence that can be spoken, the rule has transformed the sequence causes no transformational rule can ever be allowed to change meaning”
Jacobs and Rosenbaum (1968: 19), in their study say that a transformation is a particular Processes of alteration by which one sentence structure is converted into another sentence structure without any change in the meaning. The changing of deep structure to surface structure is via transformation
(Jacobs and Rosenbaum 1968:18) states, “The operation is called elementary transformation. The elementary consists of adjunction, substitution, and deletion”
Adjunction
Adjunction is a process by which one constituent is attached to another to form a larger constituent of the same type. For example; we could say that in a sentence like “He shouldn’t go”, the particle “not” can be adjoined to the auxiliary should to form the negative auxiliary “shouldn’t”.
Substitution
Substitution is technique used to determine an expression which can be substituted using another expression in phrases or sentences like that in which it occurs by another expression. For example, “John speaks clearer than you”…………”John speaks more clearly”.
Deletion
There are five kinds of deletion, those are:
a. Noun Phrase Deletion
In the noun phrase deletion, the noun in the sentence gets the Processes of deletion, for example:
Igor can play the violin, and that cat can play the violin too………Igor can play the violin, and that cat can too “Igor can play the violin, and that cat can play the violin too “becomes “Igor can play the violin, and that cat can too”. It is obvious that the violin is deleted since “the violin” has become as the object of “can”.
b. Verb Phrase Deletion
In the verb phrase deletion, the constituent that experiences a deletion is a verb phrase. The verb phrase deletion is also called an identical verb phrase deletion, for example:
“the papers refused to report the trial because they were afraid to report the trial”……….”the papers refused to report the trial because they were afraid to”.
c. Linking Verb Deletion
In the linking verb deletion, the constituent that experiences a deletion is a verbal “be”. Linking verb occurs together with the noun phrase deletion. Linking verb deletion can be considered as tobe Deletion. “Be” deletion transformation happens in the present tense sentence. For example:
“wearing makeUp”…………”
three Woman are Wearing MakeUp”
d. Imperative deletion
It is called imperative deletion because it deletes the NP, for example:
You jump (Deep Structure)…………Jump (surface structure)
In order to get from this deep structure to the surface structure “Jump”, what is needed is not an additional phrase structure rule, but rather a transformational rule. This transformation will delete the NP “You” which has been generated by the phrase structure grammar. It is illustrated in the following tree diagram:
e. Deletion under identity
For example, Ellsberg was arrested by FBI and Fonda was too. These sentences seem to consist of a complete sentence, followed by the conjunction and, followed by what we can call elliptical sentence. Taken out context, these are meaningless and could not standalone. Yet, when conjoined will dull sentence used in ordinary speech. The meaning of each of the elliptical sentences is dependent on the meaning of the sentence that precedes it. Thus, Fonda was too is taken to mean that Fonda was arrested by FBI too. We should note that sentences such as those present our theory with several nontrivial problems. We have no way of generating elliptical sentences such as those just stated. Our phrase structure rule for sentences, for example: NPAuxVP, always generates structures that are “complete” and there is no way we can generate a “partial” structure such as Fonda was. Second, we have seen that the elliptical sentences are followed by
word “and”. Thus, we may choose to generate elliptical clauses, we must ensure that our theory reflects the facts that they are dependent on the preceding sentence, at least for their meaning.
Elgin (1973:294), in her study believes that linguist is constructing grammar to identify the meaning of surface structure from the deep structure. Every human being who is native speaker of a language is walking around with just such a grammar in his head. There are no linguists have yet succeeded in achieving the same perfection and completeness but that is the goal toward their work. (Elgin, 1973: 54) states that “When a deep structure undergoes a rule (or rules) and the end result is a sequence that can be spoken, the rule has transformed the sequence causes no transformational rule can ever be allowed to change meaning”
(Jacobs and Rosenbaum 1968:18) states, “The operation is called elementary transformation. The elementary consists of adjunction, substitution, and deletion”
Adjunction
Adjunction is a process by which one constituent is attached to another to form a larger constituent of the same type. For example; we could say that in a sentence like “He shouldn’t go”, the particle “not” can be adjoined to the auxiliary should to form the negative auxiliary “shouldn’t”.
Substitution
Substitution is technique used to determine an expression which can be substituted using another expression in phrases or sentences like that in which it occurs by another expression. For example, “John speaks clearer than you”…………”John speaks more clearly”.
Deletion
There are five kinds of deletion, those are:
a. Noun Phrase Deletion
In the noun phrase deletion, the noun in the sentence gets the Processes of deletion, for example:
Igor can play the violin, and that cat can play the violin too………Igor can play the violin, and that cat can too “Igor can play the violin, and that cat can play the violin too “becomes “Igor can play the violin, and that cat can too”. It is obvious that the violin is deleted since “the violin” has become as the object of “can”.
b. Verb Phrase Deletion
In the verb phrase deletion, the constituent that experiences a deletion is a verb phrase. The verb phrase deletion is also called an identical verb phrase deletion, for example:
“the papers refused to report the trial because they were afraid to report the trial”……….”the papers refused to report the trial because they were afraid to”.
c. Linking Verb Deletion
In the linking verb deletion, the constituent that experiences a deletion is a verbal “be”. Linking verb occurs together with the noun phrase deletion. Linking verb deletion can be considered as tobe Deletion. “Be” deletion transformation happens in the present tense sentence. For example:
“wearing makeUp”…………”
three Woman are Wearing MakeUp”
d. Imperative deletion
It is called imperative deletion because it deletes the NP, for example:
You jump (Deep Structure)…………Jump (surface structure)
In order to get from this deep structure to the surface structure “Jump”, what is needed is not an additional phrase structure rule, but rather a transformational rule. This transformation will delete the NP “You” which has been generated by the phrase structure grammar. It is illustrated in the following tree diagram:
e. Deletion under identity
For example, Ellsberg was arrested by FBI and Fonda was too. These sentences seem to consist of a complete sentence, followed by the conjunction and, followed by what we can call elliptical sentence. Taken out context, these are meaningless and could not standalone. Yet, when conjoined will dull sentence used in ordinary speech. The meaning of each of the elliptical sentences is dependent on the meaning of the sentence that precedes it. Thus, Fonda was too is taken to mean that Fonda was arrested by FBI too. We should note that sentences such as those present our theory with several nontrivial problems. We have no way of generating elliptical sentences such as those just stated. Our phrase structure rule for sentences, for example: NPAuxVP, always generates structures that are “complete” and there is no way we can generate a “partial” structure such as Fonda was. Second, we have seen that the elliptical sentences are followed by
word “and”. Thus, we may choose to generate elliptical clauses, we must ensure that our theory reflects the facts that they are dependent on the preceding sentence, at least for their meaning.
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See also:
How to Draw Tree Diagram
A tree diagram shows the hierarchical structure of the sentence. The sentence is considered the basic of the syntactic system. Instead of beginning with actual sentences, however we begin with the directions for generating or producing structural descriptions of sentences, which are set forth in phrase structure rules. The rules should be interpreted as an instruction to rewrite or expand the symbol on the left of the arrows as the sequence on the right. In S NP + VP, “S” stands for sentence, “NP” (Noun Phrase) and “VP” (Verb Phrase). The item on the left dominates the elements on the right. Bornstein starts with S, the highest level and works down to lower level until it comes to maximally specific level where in addition symbol can be written. This process is called derivational in the sentence.
Tree diagram provides a precise means of defining syntactic relation. NP is immediately dominated by an S in the subject of that sentence. An NP is immediately dominated by a VP is the object or complement of the sentence containing the verb phrase. Tree diagram also shows which words are constituents of a sentence (Bornstein, 1997: 44). From the diagram below we can see that Aux, Vt and NP belong to the VP.
Points of juncture in tree diagram are called nodes. If one node is immediately dominated by another, it is called a daughter node. If one node is immediately dominated by the same nodes, they are called sister nodes. In the following diagram, the nodes NP and VP are daughter of S and sister nodes of each other. NP is the left sister whereas VP is the right sister.
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See also:
What Is Transformational Grammar?
According to Webster’s New World College Dictionary (1996: 1420), transformational grammar generates the deep structures of a language and converts this to the surface structures by means of transformation. Goodman (1970: 299) stated that all kinds of English sentences can be analyzed by using structure rule. He said that a sentence consists of phrase structure, noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (Adj. P), prepositional phrase (PP), auxiliary (Aux), and others.
Bornstein (1977: 39-99) says that “Transformations bring about various kinds of changes; they can rearrange elements in a string of symbols, add elements that were not there before, delete elements, and substitute one element for another.” He also said that in Transformational Grammar (TG) phrase structure is illustrated by means of tree diagrams called phrasemakers, which show the hierarchical structure of sentence. Bornstein symbolizes some of the common symbols used in Phrase Structure Rule as follows:
In Transformational Grammar, Phrase Structure Rules are illustrated by means of tree diagram called “phrase makers” that show the hierarchical structure of the sentence. We begin S, the highest level, and work down to the lower levels until we come to maximally specific of terminal level where no additional symbols can be written. This process is called a derivation of sentence. This steps of derivation of a sentence is:
The heart of theory is in the transformational rules that account for the relationship among different types of patterns. Transformation refers to the objective of process. “Bill painted the house” and “the house was painted by Bill” are different in surface structure but the meaning and the relationships that hold between the parts of these two sentences has same transformational grammar.
Bornstein (1977: 39-99) says that “Transformations bring about various kinds of changes; they can rearrange elements in a string of symbols, add elements that were not there before, delete elements, and substitute one element for another.” He also said that in Transformational Grammar (TG) phrase structure is illustrated by means of tree diagrams called phrasemakers, which show the hierarchical structure of sentence. Bornstein symbolizes some of the common symbols used in Phrase Structure Rule as follows:
In Transformational Grammar, Phrase Structure Rules are illustrated by means of tree diagram called “phrase makers” that show the hierarchical structure of the sentence. We begin S, the highest level, and work down to the lower levels until we come to maximally specific of terminal level where no additional symbols can be written. This process is called a derivation of sentence. This steps of derivation of a sentence is:
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See also:
Different Language or Dialect?
Isogloss, Mutual intelligibility, Dialect continuum, Dialect boundary
Sometimes in a big city like New York, in which so many people come from different countries and regions reside and visit, not so difficult to identify whether the interaction done by the people use the same language or not, since it is already clear enough that the indigenous society of that city is extremely difficult to find nowadays. In other words, most of the people who reside in that city are immigrants. There are more or less 140 languages spoken in New York City; however, at least only four communities which become the biggest of all, those are: Arabic spoken community, Chinese, French Creole, and Spanish. Those four communities speak their language among the members of their society and English for different members of community. English becomes a lingua franca, language that is widely used as a means of communication among speakers of different languages, since those four share mutual intelligibility through it.
Moreover, the term mutual intelligibility refers to a situation in which speakers of two different languages can understand each other in their communication. It becomes an indicator whether they share a same language or not. When your hearer can understand thing that you've said and vice versa means that you and your hearer has mutual intelligibility, although you may find certain differences in terms of dictions, pronunciations, or even the structures, in his language, as long as you can still understand the language he uses and vice versa, you speak a same language. Furthermore, those differences in the study of sociolinguistics refers to what so called dialect. Therefore, you share a same language but different dialect.
A
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B
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F
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G
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H
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I
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Just say in one island has nine communities: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, and I. Can you guess when the member of A communicate with B, do you think that they will understand each other or not? Of course it is very possible that they can, although they may find few differences but many similarities in the language they use; but that as they move farther away the similarities become fewer and fewer. So, A is very similar to B, less similar to C, even less similar to D, and by the time they get to G, H or I, can you guess what happen when they meet? Do you think that they still have mutual intelligibility? the possibility of this is so tiny. This is the illustration of what so called dialect continuum. According to Bloomfield it refers to a range of dialects spoken across some geographical area that differ only slightly between neighboring areas, but as one travels in any direction, these differences accumulate such that speakers from opposite ends of the continuum are no longer mutually intelligible.
The different items that shape a dialect is called isogloss. As you know that British has football while American has soccer, this one difference represents one isogloss. The compilation of isoglosses found within two different communities will shape a line abstractly which separates those two regions, this abstract line is called dialect boundary.
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However, not all theories are applicable, according to this theory the key to differentiate language or dialect is mutual intelligibility. Have you ever go to China? There are so many regions/ provinces China has. If you ask the China authorities how many languages the Chinese speak in their daily activities, surely you will get answer, only one namely Chinese language, with many different dialects. However, when you closely observe when two people from different provinces meet and speak their own dialect, you will find that between them there is no mutual intelligibility, or in other words, they speak different language. To unify those provinces, the Chinese government claims that they only speak different dialect but still in the same language.
Or Indonesia and Malaysia for instance, those two countries claim that they have their own language, Indonesia has Bahasa Indonesia and Malaysia has Malay language; however, if you pay attention carefully, there are so many similarities among those two languages, and in fact they share mutual intelligibility. In other words, they are a same language, but due to political consideration Indonesian and Malaysia claim that those are two different languages.
Or Indonesia and Malaysia for instance, those two countries claim that they have their own language, Indonesia has Bahasa Indonesia and Malaysia has Malay language; however, if you pay attention carefully, there are so many similarities among those two languages, and in fact they share mutual intelligibility. In other words, they are a same language, but due to political consideration Indonesian and Malaysia claim that those are two different languages.
Types of Poetic Forms
- Formula Poems
(1) “I Wish …. “ poems
(2) Color poems
(3) Five-senses poems
(4) “If I Were … poems
(5) “I Used to …, But Now…” poems
(6) “….. Is” poems
(7) Preposition poems
Example (Five-Senses Poem)
Being Heartbroken
Sounds like thunder and lightning
Looks like a carrot going through a blender
Tastes like sour milk
Feels like a splinter in your finger
Smells like a dead fish
It must be horrible
- Free-Form Poems
(1) Concrete poems (words, phrases, sentences written in the shape of an object)
(2) Found poems (culling words from other sources: songs, articles, stories)
Example (Found Poem)
Fast Moving
Moving down the track,
faster than fast, is Richard Petty
seven-time winner of
the crowned jewel
Daytona 500.
At 210 mph– dangerous-
pushing his engine to the limit.
Other NASCARs running fast
but Richard Petty takes the lead
at last.
Running across the line
with good time.
- Syllable- and Word-Count Poems
(1) Haiku (17 syllables arranged in three lines, 5, 7, and 5 => nature)
(2) Tanka (31 syllables arranged in five lines, 5-7-5-7-7 => nature)
(3) Cinquain (22 syllables arranged in five lines, 2-4-6-8-2 => something, story)
(4) Diamante (seven-line contrast poem written in a shape of a diamond)
Example (Diamante)
BABY
wrinkled tiny
crying wetting sleeping
rattles diapers money house
caring working loving
smart helpful
ADULT
- Rhymed Verse Forms
(1) Limerick (5 lines, 1st, 2nd, 5th lines rhyme; 3rd, 4th rhyme rhyme scheme: a-a-b-b-a; last line contains a funny, surprising ending)
(2) Clerihews (4 lines describing historical figures, characters of stories; rhyme scheme: a-b-a-b)
Example (Limerick)
There once was a frog named Pete
Who did nothing but sit and eat
He examined each fly
With so careful an eye
And then said, “You’re dead meat.”
- Model Poems
adult/renown poets. Model poems include:
(1) Apologies (Model of William Carlos Williams’s “This is Just to Say”)
(2) Invitations (Model of Shakespeare’s “Come Unto These Yellow Sands”)
(3) Prayers from the Ark (Model of Carmen Bernos de Gasztold’s “Prayers
from the Ark”)
(4) If I were in Charge of the World (Judith Viorst’s “If I Were in Charge of the
World”)
Example (Invitation)
The Golden Shore
Come unto the golden shore
Where days are filled with laughter,
And nights filled with whispering winds.
Where sunflowers and sun
Are filled with love.
Come take my hand
As we walk into the sun.
For more poetic forms: http://www.poetryfoundation.org/learning/glossary-terms?category=forms-and-types
Poetry: Under the Same Sun Analysis
UNDER THE SAME SUN
By: Scorpions
I saw the morning
It was shattered by a gun
Heard a scream, saw him fall, no one cried
I saw a mother
She was praying for her son
Bring him back, let him live, don’t let him die
Do you ever ask yourself
Is there a heaven in the sky
Why cant we get it right
cause we all live under the same sun
We all walk under the same moon
Then why, why cant we live as one
I saw the evening
Fading shadows one by one
We watch the lamb, lay down to the sacrifice
I saw the children
The children of the sun
How they wept, how they bled, how they died
Do you ever ask yourself
Is there a heaven in the sky
Why can’t we stop the fight
cause we all live under the same sun
We all walk under the same moon
Then why, why can’t we live as one
Sometimes I think I’m going mad
Were loosing all we had and no one seems to care
But in my heart it doesn’t change
We’ve got to rearrange and bring our world some love
And does it really matter
If there’s a heaven up above
We sure could use some love
cause we all live under the same sun
We all walk under the same moon
Then why, why can’t we live as one
cause we all live under the same sky
We all look up at the same stars
then why, tell me why can’t we live as one
Background and setting of the song
In 1993 Scorpions released Face the Heat. The album was a hit, propelled in large part by the massive success of the ballad "under the same sun". The song muses on the socio-political changes that were occurring in Eastern Europe and in other parts of the world at the end of the Cold War.
Theme of the song
The song is talking about war, why can’t we stop the war? Why can’t we live in peace and harmony?
The first stanza describes the situation of war which ruins the morning peace, the victims of the war, and parent who loss their son because he is forced to go to a battle. Moreover, the reference shows a kind of protest against the situation, why must there be a war if we basically have a same destiny and fate; we all live under the same sun and we all walk under the same moon.
Symbols
There are some symbols can be found in the song, the first, the word “the morning” in the first stanza in line one. Based on the following sentence it can be meant youths whose future is ruined by the war, they are forced to fight in combat. Moreover, it is also can be meant the beginning of day which is full of hope, also in the morning, the sun rises, the animals start to sing, all the activities of creatures on the surface of earth begins.
The second symbols can be found in the fourth stanza in line one, the word “evening” supported by the following sentence means the old generation whose hope was fading because it was taken cruelly by the war.
The third symbol is the word “lamb” in the fourth stanza line three. It can be interpreted that lamb refers to innocent people or children who were sacrificed vainly during the war.
The fourth symbol is the phrase “children of the sun” in the fourth stanza line four refers to the young generation who carries the future of a nation, even the world. However, they had been the victim of the war. “How they wept, how they bled, how they died”, from this statement we can infer that the war not only adverse the nation who fight against each other but also ruin the future of the world by murdering children who will make a change in the future.
Poetic Devices
a. Stanza of the song
The first, fourth, and last stanza are categorized into sestet since it has six lines in one stanza; while the second, third, fifth, and sixth are included into triplet; and septet in the seventh stanza.
b. Repetition
The repetition of word can be found in first and forth stanza in line one and three, “I saw…” , the second case of repetition is sentence repetition which can be found in the second and fifth stanza in line one “Do you ever ask yourself Is there a heaven in the sky” and the last is the reference of the song in the third and sixth stanza “cause we all live under the same sun We all walk under the same moon Then why, why cant we live as one”
c. figures of speech
• Most of the content of the song in the form of irony like we can see in:
Cause we all live under the same sun
We all walk under the same moon
Then why, why can’t we live as one
cause we all live under the same sky
We all look up at the same stars
then why, tell me why can’t we live as one
Poetry: Imagery
THE NEGRO SPEAKS OF RIVERS
I’ve known rivers:
I’ve known rivers ancient as the world
And older than of the flow of human blood in human veins
My soul has grown deep like the rivers
I bathed in Euphrates when dawns were young
I built my hut near the Congo and it lulled to sleep
I looked upon the Nile and raised the pyramids above it
I heard the singing of Mississippi when Abe Lincoln
went down to New Orleans
and I’ve seen its muddy bosom turn all golden in the sunset
I’ve known rivers
Ancient dusky rivers
My soul has grown deep like the rivers
This poem is like weaving –design in which the poet has woven together some threads of history of some threads from the geography of the world. In the design, the rivers weave in and out with all the people who live and work on the shores. The people, in time, all pass into ancient history, but the great rivers continue to flow along. And the soul of Negro people continue to grow-deeper and deeper, like the rivers they are so closely connected within their history.
Imageries
1. “I’ve known rivers ancient as the world and older than of the flow of human blood in human veins” In this first stanza, in line 2 and 3 represent hyperbole.
The sentence is exaggerated.
2. “My soul has grown deep like the rivers” In line 4 shows simile.
There is a word like in that sentence by comparing between the negro’s soul and the river.
3. “I heard the singing of Mississippi” In the second stanza, line 4 indicates personification.
Since thing, Mississippi (river), can sing like human.
DIRGE FOR A SOLDIER
Close his eyes; his work is done! (imagery of feeling)
What to him is friend or foeman
Rise of moon, or set of sun, (imagery of seeing)
Hand of man, or kiss of woman? (imagery of touching)
Lay him low, lay him low,
In the clover or the snow!
What cares he? He cannot know:
Lay him low!
As man may, he fought his fight,
Proved his truth by his endeavor;
Let him sleep in solemn night,
Sleep forever and forever
Lay him low, lay him low,
In the clover or the snow!
What cares he? He cannot know:
Lay him low!
Fold him in his country’s stars,
Roll the drum and fire the volley! (imagery of hearing and seeing)
What to him are all our wars,
What but death be mocking folly
Lay him low, lay him low,
In the clover or the snow!
What cares he? He cannot know:
Lay him low!
Leave him to God’s watching eye, (imagery of feeling)
Trust him to the hand that made him,
Mortal love woops idly by:
God alone has power to aid him
Lay him low, lay him low,
In the clover or the snow!
What cares he? He cannot know:
Lay him low!
_ George Henry Boker
Sociolinguistics: Language Variation
Two people who share mutual intelligibility of a language may have different style in using the language. It can be from the way how he speaks, the diction he chooses, or even the grammatical rules he uses. These cases become one of the concern areas of sociolinguistic study, namely language variation.
Talking about the language variation, it is divided into two kinds, internal and external. The first is simply defined as the variation of a language within the language itself, which means that, it refers to the variation in each level of constructions of language: phones, morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraph, and finally meanings. Some English speakers will pronounce the word "today" as /tedaI/ and some pronounce it /tedeI/, this different shows the variation of language in the level of phone, phonological variation. Some also may say theirselves” for “themselves" to show a morphological variation in English. Or in many Southern dialects to find the word "done" used as an auxiliary, as in "she done already told you" or "I done finished a while ago.“ which become the cases of syntactic variation. Furthermore, semantic variation, variation in the level of meaning, has two kinds of cases in common, fist, same concept represented by two different terms, such as, football and soccer to refer to a kind of sport game played by two teams of eleven players using a round ball. Players kick the ball to each other and try to score goals by kicking the ball into a large net. Second, a term refers to two different concept, such as "Soda", British use it for seltzer water or club soda only, and American for any kinds of soft drink.
On the other hand, external variation refers to the variation of a language influenced by factors outside the language; it will lead us to the distinction between idiolect, dialect, sociolect, and chronolect.
Idiolect
All speakers of English can talk to each other and pretty much understand each other. Yet, no two of us speak exactly alike. Some differences are the result of age, sex, social situation, and where and when the language was learned. These differences are reflected in word choices, the pronunciation of words, and grammatical rules. The language of an individual speaker with its unique characteristics is referred to as the speaker’s idiolect. English may then be said to consist of anywhere from 450 million to 850 million idiolects, or the number of speakers of English (which seems to be growing every day and is difficult to estimate).
Dialect
Like individuals, different groups of people who speak the same language speak it differently. Bostonians, New Yorkers, Texans, blacks in Chicago, whites in Denver, and Hispanics in Albuquerque all exhibit variation in the way they speak English. When there are systematic differences in the way groups speak a language, we say that each group speaks a dialect of that language. Dialects are mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic ways.
Suppose that there are two friends, Awin and Alice, who come from different regions, south and east of East Java Province, in which those two regions have the same language as their means of communication, reside in the same city located in the center of East Java Province, which also has the same language like the other two. However, when they communicate each other there are so many differences among them in using the language. Awin representing the east region people tends to use "rude" version of Javanese language which is strongly influenced by Surabaya style which is "very rude” and Alice tends to use "polite" version of Javanese since the people in her region is strongly influenced by Blitar style in their daily language. The different of geography shapes the variation of the language they use. This kind of variation which is influenced much by geographical factors is called dialect.
Sociolect
Among many languages in the world, Javanese is unique. it has three levels of politeness, Ngoko, Kromo Madya, and Kromo Inggil, each has its own vocabularies but similar in its rules and share mutual intelligibility. Moreover, in its society strata, the social of class is divided into three: priyayi, the term to call nobleman, santri is educated and religious people, and abangan is for both educated and uneducated but irreligious people. the highest strata uses kromo inggil and kromo madya in their daily communication but they also master ngoko, santri use kromo madya and ngoko and only few of them can speak kromo inggil; while abangan use ngoko as the dominant and kromo madya for only in certain occasions. When a Javanese talks to someone older or more honorable than him, he will use the highest level of politeness that he has mastered. He will use (1)'sare/ nendra' (kromo inggil) for sleep instead of (2)'tilem' (kromo madya) or (3)'turu'' (ngoko) when he speaks to his parent or boss, use the second to someone older than him, and third to someone of the same age. This variation of language which is influenced by social class in a society is called sociolect.
Chronolect
This term refers to variation of language due to the factor of time. by using diachronic method it can be discovered the variation of a language.
What is a theme?
What will obviously help you is if you have a method which tells you how and where to start. The method I will be explaining in this book can be applied to any of the texts you have to study, whether they are novels, plays or poems. I shall be showing how you can think about the text, and go on to study important passages, so your understanding develops fruitfully and is supported by the detailed analysis you need when you come to write essays or examinations. The way to overcome the first difficulty is really quite straightforward: you can make a start by finding a theme.
A theme is simply this: a subject which interests the writer, and which is discussed in the text or portrayed in it in some way. Finding a ‘subject’ in a book may sound difficult, but when you know the kind of subject you are looking for you will see that it is quite easy. A theme is not a summary of the story: that is not what the text is ‘about’; nor is it a special subject you have to search for. Literature is about ordinary life, so the big themes in literature are the important subjects and experiences of our public and private lives: they are the ordinary and common words in our everyday thoughts and conversations, like love, death, marriage, freedom, hope, despair, power, war, revenge, evil, and so on. This list of the big common experiences of life could go on and on, because anything which is a subject in life can become a theme in literature. The first thing you can say about a text is that it is about one of these common subjects, so the first thing you say is startlingly simple. You might think it even too obvious, but it is a very important step forward because you have left the feeling of blankness behind: you simply say ‘There is a lot in it about love’, or ‘It is about hope and despair’. Then you have made a start.
There is one more point to make about themes. They are big ordinary subjects, but they are complex. The texts you study focus on the problems people face, their contradictory feelings, and the complex moral and social entanglements which confront people and make our experience of living so complex. So the big ideas in a text are not simple opinions: they are full of complexity like our experience of life itself.
Source: Nicholas Marsh. How to Begin Studying English Literature
Some Basic Terms in SLA (An Introduction)
The illustration about Andy gives us a chance to pops-up some questions about the languages he acquired. Does English become his first language since he was born in Los Angeles? Or, is it Korean language that becomes his first language since his parents are both Korean? If Korean language is not his first language, than does Korean language become Andy’s second or foreign language? Were Andy acquired or learned both the English and Korean Language? Let us find a glimpse of the answers for those questions by first comparing the terms first language acquisition and second language acquisition. Next, we compare the terms second language acquisition and foreign language acquisition. Last, we contrast the term acquire and learning.
First Language Acquisition vs. Second Language Acquisition
The native language that a child acquired is called first language (L1). It is also commonly called mother tongue. In contrast, Ellis (1986) describes second language (L2) as an additional language that a child learned after they have acquired their mother tongue. Gass (2000) uses another term to refer to second language as nonprimary. She also mentions that the broad term second language (L2) learning does not only refer to second language, but also to third or fourth language. According to Ellis (1986), there is a relation between L1 acquisition and L2 acquisition since the study of second language acquisition (SLA) began with the study of first language (L1) acquisition. SLA research has tended to follow the footsteps of L1 acquisition research, both in its methodology and in many of the issues that it has treated.
Second Language Acquisition vs. Foreign Language Acquisition
In regard to the current comparison, the term second language acquisition refers to learning a language in the environment where that language is spoken (such as Italian in Italy, English in the United States), whereas the term foreign language refers to learning a language in one’s “home” environment (such as English in Indonesia, Japanese in Australia). However, many linguists do not really differentiate the use of both terms. Ellis (1986) mentions that second language acquisition is not intended to contrast foreign language acquisition. SLA is used as a general term that embraces both untutored (or ‘naturalistic’) acquisition and tutored (or ‘classroom’) acquisition. Gass (2000) also argues that there is little evidence that the mental processes involved in learning a language beyond the native language differ as a function of whether the learning is in a second versus a foreign language environment. Yet, she also admits that there may be significance differences in terms of the context itself, and hence the materials available to learners.
Acquisition vs. Learning
Based on Krashen’s approach (in Gass, 2000), second language acquisition is contrasted with second language learning on the assumption that in learning an L2, learners develop two independent knowledge systems, one is referred to as acquisition and the other as learning. The term acquisition is used to refer to the unconscious picking up a second language through exposure, whereas the term learning is used to refer to the conscious study of a second language (i.e. knowing the rules, being aware of the rules, and being able to talk about the rules) (Ellis, 1986; Gass, 2000). However, many SLA researchers use the terms (acquisition and learning) interchangeably since many say that Krashen’s ideas on L2 learning are lacked of theoretical thoroughness.
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