Brown and Levinson's Politeness Strategies

As it has been discussed in the previous article: means of communication, that as a means of communication, related to discourse study, language has two primary functions, those are, transactional and interactional function. In a simple definition, the first term refers to language as a means of conveyance of information, while the second refers to language that functions as a means of social relation maintenance. In line with the second function of language,  interactional function, people have to see to whom they are speaking, because it may be some expressions are considered rude. It is needed to identify the social values of a society in order to speak politely. Making decisions about what is not regarded as polite expressions in any community will involve assessing social relationship along the dimensions of social distance or solidarity, and relative power or status. Being polite may also involve the dimension of formality.

The study of politeness strategy is basically the study of knowing the way the people use the language while they are having interaction or communication. It preaches how to use the language and conduct the conversation run well and go smoothly.
In case of communication, however, everyone wants to be understood and not to be disturbed by others; moreover, he or she does not want to loose his face while communicating. Loosing face means the notions of being embarrassed, humiliated or disappointed. That is why face is something that is emotionally invested, maintained, enhanced and constantly attended in an interaction.

Concept of face
Face means respect, self-esteem, self-image in the community, Brown and Levinson say that society is governed by two desires: to be free from imposition, and to be appreciated and approved of. First desire considered a negative politeness, and the latter is considered a positive politeness.
Face is the central idea of ​​this theory:

• Negative face includes the following aspects: the basic demands of the private property and personal space, rights not to be disturbed, freedom of action and freedom from imposition. 
• Positive face refers to personality as well as desires that his own self-image is accepted and respected, the value of face is different in different cultures: the definite boundary  is a private space and the local culture. 

Face-Threatening Act (FTA) 
Meanwhile, in a conversation, the interlocutor could be a threat to someone's face and the face of his own by making a question, suggestion, criticism, reveling mistake, thanking, and so on. All of these so-called face-threatening act (FTA). Most of the speech acts of speaker emerged potentially results FTA.

FTA could threaten the face of both positive and negative, as in point (I) and (II):
(I) Negative FTA: command, request, suggest, suggestions, remind, threaten, warn, offer, promise, express jealousy, admiration, hate, anger, passion, etc
(Ii) Positive FTA: an expression of disapproval, criticism, felt disgust, complaining, accusing, insulting, diagreeing, emotionally abusive, mentioning taboo topics, interrupting and uncooperative, etc.

4 Kinds of politeness strategies (Brown & Levinson) 
• The bald on-record strategy does nothing to minimize threats to the hearer's "face" (directly without regard to the "face" of listener-usually in a subordinate-supervisor relationship)

 e.g. close the door!

• The positive politeness strategy shows you recognize that your hearer has a desire to be respected. It also confirms that the relationship is friendly and expresses group reciprocity. (Wish yourself image is accepted and appreciated)

e.g. we both know that (seek agreement) everything will be alright from now on.

Brown and Levinson propose fifteen positive and 10 negative politeness strategies in which for further explanation will be discussed in "Positive Politeness Vs. Negative Politeness Strategies".

kinds of positive politeness strategies
1. Notice, Attend to H: speakers are advised to pay attention to the condition of the listener
2. Exaggerate: exaggeration on the condition of the listener
3. Intensify interest: strengthening S's interest to the condition H
4. Use in group identity markers: put H as part of the community of S
5. Seek agreement: provide the same perception of the condition that occurs towards the S.
6. etc.

• The negative politeness strategy also Recognizes the hearer's face. But it also Recognizes that you are in some way imposing on them. (Right to not be disturbed)

e.g. "I do not want to bother you but ..." or "I was wondering if ..."

• Off-record indirect strategies the main purpose is to take some of the pressure off of you. You are trying to avoid the direct Face Threatening Act of asking something. (Do indirect FTA-satire / questions)

e.g. This day is very hot, is not it?

Used to tell someone standing / sitting near the window to open it.

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The Functions of Illocutionary Acts

Leech's (1993:104) purposes the illocutionary acts based on its functions. It is according to how illocutionary acts relate to the social goals or purposes of establishing and maintaining politeness. The form types of illocutionary acts functions are as follows:

1. Competitive aims at competing with the social purposes, such as ordering, asking, demanding, and begging. It is intended to produce some effects through action by the hearer. For instance, “I ask your cookies”.

2. Convivial aims in compliance with the social purposes, for instance offering, inviting, greeting, thanking and congratulating. Such as, “Do you want these cookies?”

3. Collaborative aims at ignoring the social purposes as like asserting, reporting, announcing, and instructing. It is commit the speaker to the truth of expressed proposition. For instance, “I like this book”.

4. Conflictive aims at conflicting against the social purposes. Such as threatening, accusing, and reprimanding. If you say again “I will say to your father”.

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See also:

• Austin's Speech Act Theory
• Performative vs. Constative Sentence
• Austin’s five categories of performative

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Kinds of Performative Utterance

Yule (1996: 53-54) states that one general classification system lists five types of general functions performed by speech acts, those are:

1. Directives
A directive speech act is an attempt by speaker to get hearer to do something. Example of directives are ordering, commanding, requesting, pleading, begging, entreating, daring, suggesting, inviting, questioning, insisting and permitting. Note that the action must be future and voluntary, because it is impossible to ask someone to perform an action in the past or to do something which is not a matter of human will. e.g. ;
• Give me your hand, please!
• Could you lend me a book, please!
The expressed psychological state is that speaker wants hearer to do something. The direction of fit is world-to-word, for speaker (S) is attempting to get the world resemble his or her words.

2. Commisives
In a commisives speech act, speaker commits himself or herself to the performance of an action. Examples of commisives are promising, pledging, threatening, guaranteeing, agreeing, consenting and refusing. Again, the promised action must be future and voluntary. The examples are;
• I’ll accompany you going to the market tomorrow
• If you disobey the rule, I will give you a punishment.
The expressed psychological state is that speaker intends to do something. The direction of fit is world-to-word.

3. Representatives (also known as “Assertives”)
In this type of speech act, speaker represents a state of affairs. Examples of representatives are affirming, declaring, describing, claiming, stating, explaining, classifying, insisting, emphasizing, and predicting.  representative commits speaker to the truth of the preposition. The expressed psychological state is one of belief. The direction of fit is wordto- world. The examples are:
• Dad : he is my son
• I tell you that Jakarta is the capital city of Indonesia

4. Expressives
In an expressive speech act, speaker expresses a psychological state about the situation or state of affairs denoted by the preposition. Examples of expressives are thanking, apologizing, consoling, congratulating, greeting, deploring, and welcoming. The propositional content is something which affects speaker or hearer. In using expressive, the speaker makes words fit the world (feeling). e.g.
• I’m really sorry!
• Congratulation for your success
• Thank you for being helped, Nick!

5. Declaratives
Declaratives are the prototypical speech acts. Here the speaker brings about a change a world by uttering a locutionary act. The example of declaratives are declaring war, seconding a motion, adjourning a meeting, firing, nominating, betting, baptizing, finding guilty or innocent, divorcing arresting, and resigning. E.g.
• Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife
• Bush : attack!, Iraq
The speaker has to have a special institutional role, in a specific context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately.
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See also:

• Austin's Speech Act Theory
• Performative vs. Constative Sentence
• Austin’s five categories of performative

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SLA: Universal Hypothesis and A Neurofunctional Theory

6. The Universal Hypothesis
A language pattern or phenomenon which occurs in all known languages.
For example, it has been suggested that:
a. if a language has dual number for referring to just two something, it also that PLURAL number (for referring to more than two). This type of universal is sometimes called an implication universal.

b. There is a high probability that the word referring to the female parent will start with
NASAL consonant, e.g. /m/ in English mothe, in German Mutter,  in Swahili mama and in Chinese (Mandarin) muqin.

Evaluation
The Hypothesis provides an interesting account of how the linguistic properties of target language and the learner’s first language may influence the course development.
The value of the Universal hypothesis for SLA theory is twofold: (1) it focuses attention on the nature on the target language itself, and (2) it provides a suitable and persuasive reconsideration of transfer as an important factor in SLA.  In addition, the Universal Hypothesis operates on the assumption that linguistic knowledge is homogeneous  and, therefore, ignores variability.

7. A Neurofunctional Theory
The basic premise of a neurofunctional view  of SLA is that there is a connection between and the neural anatomy. It is important to recognize, as Hatch (1983a:213) puts it, ‘there is no single black box’ for language in the brain.
Lamendella claims that SLA can be explained neurofunctionally with reference to (1) which neurofunctional system is used-the communication or cognitive-and (2) which level within the chosen neurofunctional system is engage.

Evaluation 
Neurofunctional explanations of SLA are based on the premise that is possible to trace the neurolinguistic correlates of specific language function.  Neurolinguistic and neurofunctional explanations are perhaps best treated as affording additional understanding about SLA, rather than an explanation of it. However, in the long run it will be useful if psycholinguistic construct used to explain SLA can be matched up with neurofunctional mechanisms.

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There are seven theories of Second Language Acquisition. They are:
1. The Acculturation Model
2. Accommodation Theory
3. Discourse Theory
4. The Monitor Model
5. The Variable Competence Model
6. The Universal Hypothesis
7. A Neurofunctional Theory

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SLA: Monitor and Variable Competence Model

4. The Monitor Model 
Krashen’s Monitor Model has enjoyed considerable prominence in SLA research. However, as I shall attempt to show later, the theory is seriously flawed in a number of respects, in particular in its treatment of language-learner variability.
The Monitor Model consists of five central hypotheses;

The five hypotheses
1. The acquisition learning hypothesis
The ‘acquisition –learning’ distinction has already been considered. ‘Acquisition’ occurs subconsciously as result of participating in natural communication where the the focus is on meaning. And Learning occurs as a result of conscious study of the formal properties of the language. In storage, ‘acquired’ knowledge is located in the left hemisphere of the brain in the language area; it is not linguistic nature.

2. The natural order hypothesis
The natural order hypothesis draws on the SLA research literature that indicates that learners may follow a more or less invariant order in the acquisition of formal grammatical features.

3. The Monitor hypothesis
The monitor is the device that learners use to edit their language performance. It utilizes ‘learnt’ knowledge’ by acting upon and modifying utterances generated from ‘acquired’ knowledge.
Krashen gives three monitoring conditions for it’s use:
(1) there must be sufficient time,  (2) the focus must be on the form and not meaning; and (3) the user mus know the rule for fuller discussion.

4. The input hypothesis
It states that ‘acquisition’ takes place as result of the learner having understood input that is a little beyond the current level of his competence ( i + 1 level). Input that is comprehensible to learner will automatically be at the right level.

5. The affective filter hypothesis
Affective factor which determine its strength have to do with the learner’s motivation, self-confidence, or anxiety state. Learners with high motivation and self confidence and with low anxiety have low filters. And learners h\with low motivation, little confidence, and high anxiety have high filters.

Causative variables taken into account in the Monitor Model
Krashen also discusses a number of other factors, each of which figures conspicuously in the SLA research literature.
1. Aptitude
2. Role of the first language
3. Routines and patterns
4. individual differences
There is no individual variation in acquisition process. And Krashen indicates three types of  Monitor Users: (1) over-users, (2) under user, (3) optimal user (i.e those who apply conscious knowledge when it is appropriate).
5. Age.
Age influences SLA. Older learners are the better better suited to study language than younger.

Evaluation
The ‘acquisition – learning’ distinction  has been called ‘theological’ in that it has been formulated in order to confirm a specific goal, namely that successful SLA is the result of ‘acquisition.
Variable. The monitor model is a dual competence, that is “acquisition and learning (Krashen-labe,) it consists of variable performance, seen as a reflection of stylistic continuum,  and variable competence model best fits the known fact about SLA.

5. The Variable Competence Model
The model is based on two distinctions-one of which refers to the process of language use, and second refers to   language  product.
Language use is to understood in term of the distinction between linguistic knowledge (procedure).  It refers to the competence and capacity.
The following is from the process of language use that product.
1. a variable competence, i.e the user processes a heterogeneous rule system;
2. variable application of procedures for actualizing knowledge in discourse. The VCM of SLA claims that both occur..

To summarize, the Variable Competence Model proposes:
1. there is a single knowledge score containing variable inter-language rules according to how automatic and how analyzed the rules are.
2. the leaner process a capacity for language use which consists of primary and secondary discourse, or secondary process and cognitive process.
3. L2 performance is variable.
4. Development occurs as result of
(a) acquisition of new L2 rules through participation in various types of discourse.
(b) Activation of L2 rules which initially exist in either a non automatic dis-analyzed form or in an analyzed form so they can be used in unplanned discourse.

Evaluation 
The VCM of SLA  attempts to account for (1) variability of language-learner language, and (2) the external and internal processes responsible for SLA. SLA is the result of the exchange  of linguistic process of discourse construction involving both the leaner and interlocutor.
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There are seven theories of Second Language Acquisition. They are:
1. The Acculturation Model
2. Accommodation Theory
3. Discourse Theory
4. The Monitor Model
5. The Variable Competence Model
6. The Universal Hypothesis
7. A Neurofunctional Theory

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SLA: Accomodation and Discourse Theory

2. Accommodation Theory
Accommodation theory is derived from the research of Giles and associates into inter-group uses in multilingual communities such as Britain. His primary concern is to investigate how inter-group uses language reflect basic social  and psychological attitudes in inter ethnic communication.

Accommodation theory shares certain premises with the Acculturation Model, but it also differs from it in a number for significant ways. Giles considers he level of motivation to be reflect of how individual learners define themselves in ethnic terms. This in turn, is governed by a number of key variables.

1. Identification of the individual learner with his ethnic in-group.
2. Inter-ethnic comparison:  whether the learner makes favorable or unfavorable
    comparisons between his own in group and the out group.
3. Perception of ethnology-linguistic vitality:
    Whether the learner asses his group as holding a low or high status and as sharing or
    excluded from institutional power
4. Perception of in-groups boundaries:
5. Identification with other in-group social categories.
In addition to determining the overall level proficiency achieved in SLA, Accommodation
Theory also accounts for the learner’s variable linguistic output.

Evaluation
The strength of Accommodation theory is that encompass language acquisition and language use within a single frame work. And Accommodation Theory provides an explanation of language-learner language variability.

3. Discourse Theory 
It follows from a theory of language use, in which communication is treated as the matrix of linguistic knowledge, that language development should be considered in terms of how the learner discovers the meaning potential  of language by participating in communication.

The Discourse Theory, Hatch (1978c; 1978d)  has  proposed 4 principles:
1. SLA follows a ‘natural route in syntactical development.
2. Native speakers adjust their speech in order to negotiate meaning with non native
    speaker.
3. The conventional strategies used to negotiate meaning.
4. Thus, the ‘natural’  route is the result of learning how to hold conversation.

Evaluation
The Discourse Theory, like the two preceding theories, does not address the nature of the learner strategies responsible for SLA.  When Hatch talks of processes  she mean external not internal processes-those which can be observed in face to face interaction-internal processes, those can observed through learner perform.
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There are seven theories of Second Language Acquisition. They are:
1. The Acculturation Model
2. Accommodation Theory
3. Discourse Theory
4. The Monitor Model
5. The Variable Competence Model
6. The Universal Hypothesis
7. A Neurofunctional Theory

Read more »