Some Basic Terms in SLA (An Introduction)

Andy Lee, a fictional character, is a Korean-American who was born in the city of Los Angeles. His parents are both Korean who immigrated to the United States. One day, he joined a worldwide audition held by a Korean entertainment company, and was chosen to be one of those to be trained as a singer in Korea. During his training days, Andy learned from basic on how to communicate in Korean both spoken and written. Now, being known as a member of an idol group, he appears in TV stations and often makes people laugh as he slips his tongue between one Korean word and another Korean word.

The illustration about Andy gives us a chance to pops-up some questions about the languages he acquired. Does English become his first language since he was born in Los Angeles? Or, is it Korean language that becomes his first language since his parents are both Korean? If Korean language is not his first language, than does Korean language become Andy’s second or foreign language? Were Andy acquired or learned both the English and Korean Language? Let us find a glimpse of the answers for those questions by first comparing the terms first language acquisition and second language acquisition. Next, we compare the terms second language acquisition and foreign language acquisition. Last, we contrast the term acquire and learning.

First Language Acquisition vs. Second Language Acquisition
The native language that a child acquired is called first language (L1). It is also commonly called mother tongue. In contrast, Ellis (1986) describes second language (L2) as an additional language that a child learned after they have acquired their mother tongue. Gass (2000) uses another term to refer to second language as nonprimary. She also mentions that the broad term second language (L2) learning does not only refer to second language, but also to third or fourth language. According to Ellis (1986), there is a relation between L1 acquisition and L2 acquisition since the study of second language acquisition (SLA) began with the study of first language (L1) acquisition. SLA research has tended to follow the footsteps of L1 acquisition research, both in its methodology and in many of the issues that it has treated.

Second Language Acquisition vs. Foreign Language Acquisition
In regard to the current comparison, the term second language acquisition refers to learning a language in the environment where that language is spoken (such as Italian in Italy, English in the United States), whereas the term foreign language refers to learning a language in one’s “home” environment (such as English in Indonesia, Japanese in Australia). However, many linguists do not really differentiate the use of both terms. Ellis (1986) mentions that second language acquisition is not intended to contrast foreign language acquisition. SLA is used as a general term that embraces both untutored (or ‘naturalistic’) acquisition and tutored (or ‘classroom’) acquisition. Gass (2000) also argues that there is little evidence that the mental processes involved in learning a language beyond the native language differ as a function of whether the learning is in a second versus a foreign language environment. Yet, she also admits that there may be significance differences in terms of the context itself, and hence the materials available to learners.

Acquisition vs. Learning
Based on Krashen’s approach (in Gass, 2000), second language acquisition is contrasted with second language learning on the assumption that in learning an L2, learners develop two independent knowledge systems, one is referred to as acquisition and the other as learning. The term acquisition is used to refer to the unconscious picking up a second language through exposure, whereas the term learning is used to refer to the conscious study of a second language (i.e. knowing the rules, being aware of the rules, and being able to talk about the rules) (Ellis, 1986; Gass, 2000). However, many SLA researchers use the terms (acquisition and learning) interchangeably since many say that Krashen’s ideas on L2 learning are lacked of theoretical thoroughness.

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SLA: Universal Hypothesis and A Neurofunctional Theory

6. The Universal Hypothesis
A language pattern or phenomenon which occurs in all known languages.
For example, it has been suggested that:
a. if a language has dual number for referring to just two something, it also that PLURAL number (for referring to more than two). This type of universal is sometimes called an implication universal.

b. There is a high probability that the word referring to the female parent will start with
NASAL consonant, e.g. /m/ in English mothe, in German Mutter,  in Swahili mama and in Chinese (Mandarin) muqin.

Evaluation
The Hypothesis provides an interesting account of how the linguistic properties of target language and the learner’s first language may influence the course development.
The value of the Universal hypothesis for SLA theory is twofold: (1) it focuses attention on the nature on the target language itself, and (2) it provides a suitable and persuasive reconsideration of transfer as an important factor in SLA.  In addition, the Universal Hypothesis operates on the assumption that linguistic knowledge is homogeneous  and, therefore, ignores variability.

7. A Neurofunctional Theory
The basic premise of a neurofunctional view  of SLA is that there is a connection between and the neural anatomy. It is important to recognize, as Hatch (1983a:213) puts it, ‘there is no single black box’ for language in the brain.
Lamendella claims that SLA can be explained neurofunctionally with reference to (1) which neurofunctional system is used-the communication or cognitive-and (2) which level within the chosen neurofunctional system is engage.

Evaluation 
Neurofunctional explanations of SLA are based on the premise that is possible to trace the neurolinguistic correlates of specific language function.  Neurolinguistic and neurofunctional explanations are perhaps best treated as affording additional understanding about SLA, rather than an explanation of it. However, in the long run it will be useful if psycholinguistic construct used to explain SLA can be matched up with neurofunctional mechanisms.

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There are seven theories of Second Language Acquisition. They are:
1. The Acculturation Model
2. Accommodation Theory
3. Discourse Theory
4. The Monitor Model
5. The Variable Competence Model
6. The Universal Hypothesis
7. A Neurofunctional Theory

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SLA: Monitor and Variable Competence Model

4. The Monitor Model 
Krashen’s Monitor Model has enjoyed considerable prominence in SLA research. However, as I shall attempt to show later, the theory is seriously flawed in a number of respects, in particular in its treatment of language-learner variability.
The Monitor Model consists of five central hypotheses;

The five hypotheses
1. The acquisition learning hypothesis
The ‘acquisition –learning’ distinction has already been considered. ‘Acquisition’ occurs subconsciously as result of participating in natural communication where the the focus is on meaning. And Learning occurs as a result of conscious study of the formal properties of the language. In storage, ‘acquired’ knowledge is located in the left hemisphere of the brain in the language area; it is not linguistic nature.

2. The natural order hypothesis
The natural order hypothesis draws on the SLA research literature that indicates that learners may follow a more or less invariant order in the acquisition of formal grammatical features.

3. The Monitor hypothesis
The monitor is the device that learners use to edit their language performance. It utilizes ‘learnt’ knowledge’ by acting upon and modifying utterances generated from ‘acquired’ knowledge.
Krashen gives three monitoring conditions for it’s use:
(1) there must be sufficient time,  (2) the focus must be on the form and not meaning; and (3) the user mus know the rule for fuller discussion.

4. The input hypothesis
It states that ‘acquisition’ takes place as result of the learner having understood input that is a little beyond the current level of his competence ( i + 1 level). Input that is comprehensible to learner will automatically be at the right level.

5. The affective filter hypothesis
Affective factor which determine its strength have to do with the learner’s motivation, self-confidence, or anxiety state. Learners with high motivation and self confidence and with low anxiety have low filters. And learners h\with low motivation, little confidence, and high anxiety have high filters.

Causative variables taken into account in the Monitor Model
Krashen also discusses a number of other factors, each of which figures conspicuously in the SLA research literature.
1. Aptitude
2. Role of the first language
3. Routines and patterns
4. individual differences
There is no individual variation in acquisition process. And Krashen indicates three types of  Monitor Users: (1) over-users, (2) under user, (3) optimal user (i.e those who apply conscious knowledge when it is appropriate).
5. Age.
Age influences SLA. Older learners are the better better suited to study language than younger.

Evaluation
The ‘acquisition – learning’ distinction  has been called ‘theological’ in that it has been formulated in order to confirm a specific goal, namely that successful SLA is the result of ‘acquisition.
Variable. The monitor model is a dual competence, that is “acquisition and learning (Krashen-labe,) it consists of variable performance, seen as a reflection of stylistic continuum,  and variable competence model best fits the known fact about SLA.

5. The Variable Competence Model
The model is based on two distinctions-one of which refers to the process of language use, and second refers to   language  product.
Language use is to understood in term of the distinction between linguistic knowledge (procedure).  It refers to the competence and capacity.
The following is from the process of language use that product.
1. a variable competence, i.e the user processes a heterogeneous rule system;
2. variable application of procedures for actualizing knowledge in discourse. The VCM of SLA claims that both occur..

To summarize, the Variable Competence Model proposes:
1. there is a single knowledge score containing variable inter-language rules according to how automatic and how analyzed the rules are.
2. the leaner process a capacity for language use which consists of primary and secondary discourse, or secondary process and cognitive process.
3. L2 performance is variable.
4. Development occurs as result of
(a) acquisition of new L2 rules through participation in various types of discourse.
(b) Activation of L2 rules which initially exist in either a non automatic dis-analyzed form or in an analyzed form so they can be used in unplanned discourse.

Evaluation 
The VCM of SLA  attempts to account for (1) variability of language-learner language, and (2) the external and internal processes responsible for SLA. SLA is the result of the exchange  of linguistic process of discourse construction involving both the leaner and interlocutor.
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There are seven theories of Second Language Acquisition. They are:
1. The Acculturation Model
2. Accommodation Theory
3. Discourse Theory
4. The Monitor Model
5. The Variable Competence Model
6. The Universal Hypothesis
7. A Neurofunctional Theory

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SLA: Accomodation and Discourse Theory

2. Accommodation Theory
Accommodation theory is derived from the research of Giles and associates into inter-group uses in multilingual communities such as Britain. His primary concern is to investigate how inter-group uses language reflect basic social  and psychological attitudes in inter ethnic communication.

Accommodation theory shares certain premises with the Acculturation Model, but it also differs from it in a number for significant ways. Giles considers he level of motivation to be reflect of how individual learners define themselves in ethnic terms. This in turn, is governed by a number of key variables.

1. Identification of the individual learner with his ethnic in-group.
2. Inter-ethnic comparison:  whether the learner makes favorable or unfavorable
    comparisons between his own in group and the out group.
3. Perception of ethnology-linguistic vitality:
    Whether the learner asses his group as holding a low or high status and as sharing or
    excluded from institutional power
4. Perception of in-groups boundaries:
5. Identification with other in-group social categories.
In addition to determining the overall level proficiency achieved in SLA, Accommodation
Theory also accounts for the learner’s variable linguistic output.

Evaluation
The strength of Accommodation theory is that encompass language acquisition and language use within a single frame work. And Accommodation Theory provides an explanation of language-learner language variability.

3. Discourse Theory 
It follows from a theory of language use, in which communication is treated as the matrix of linguistic knowledge, that language development should be considered in terms of how the learner discovers the meaning potential  of language by participating in communication.

The Discourse Theory, Hatch (1978c; 1978d)  has  proposed 4 principles:
1. SLA follows a ‘natural route in syntactical development.
2. Native speakers adjust their speech in order to negotiate meaning with non native
    speaker.
3. The conventional strategies used to negotiate meaning.
4. Thus, the ‘natural’  route is the result of learning how to hold conversation.

Evaluation
The Discourse Theory, like the two preceding theories, does not address the nature of the learner strategies responsible for SLA.  When Hatch talks of processes  she mean external not internal processes-those which can be observed in face to face interaction-internal processes, those can observed through learner perform.
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There are seven theories of Second Language Acquisition. They are:
1. The Acculturation Model
2. Accommodation Theory
3. Discourse Theory
4. The Monitor Model
5. The Variable Competence Model
6. The Universal Hypothesis
7. A Neurofunctional Theory

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Seven Theories of Second Language Acquisition

The Role of Theory in SLA research
1. The description: the characterization of the nature  of the linguistic categories which constitute the learner’s inter-language at any point in development (what, when, and how acquired).
2. The explanation: to discover why the learner develop the particular linguistic that he does.
Function of theory or what theory is a theory for? The theory is for : observational adequacy, descriptive adequacy and explanatory adequacy.

There are seven theories of Second Language Acquisition. They are:
1. The Acculturation Model
2. Accommodation Theory
3. Discourse Theory
4. The Monitor Model
5. The Variable Competence Model
6. The Universal Hypothesis
7. A Neurofunctional Theory

1. The Acculturation Model 

Acculturation is defined  (Brown, 1980) as the process of becoming adapted to new culture. Acculturation is determined by the degree of social and psychological distance between the learner and the target language culture. So, the acquisition of SLA is influenced by a culture, social and psychological distance.

Nativization Model

Andersen sees SLA as the result of two general forces, which labels nativisation and denavitisation. Nativisation consists o fassimilation; the learner makes the input conform to his own internelized view of what constitute the L2. and Denavitisation is apparent in depidginization (i.e the elaboration of pidgin language which occurs through the gradual incorporation of form from an external language source) and also in later first an second language acquisition.

Evaluation

The acculturation and Nativist Model focus on the power mechanism of SLA.  They provide explanations of why L2 learner, unlike first language learners, often fail to achieve a native-like competence.

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